Ius Novum
type: channel
description: Ius Novum (ISSN 1897-5577, online ISSN 2545-0271) is a peer-reviewed scientfic quarterly of the Faculty of Law and Administration of Lazarski University in Warsaw. It has been published since 2007.
publisher: Oficyna Wydawnicza Uczelni Łazarskiego
language: en
publication name: Ius Novum
issn: 1897-5577
items: Digital Processes in EU Company Regulations and Their Implications for Registry Practices
items: Regulation of Airport Charges in EU Law, and in Poland and Germany: Limits of Airport Managing Bodies’ Autonomy and the Principle of Transparency and Non-Discrimination
items: The Legal Aspects of the Use of the Electronic Fiscal and Customs Services Platform by Entrepreneurs Engaged in the International Trade of Goods
items: Obligations of Importers, Distributors and Deployers of High-Risk AI Systems under the AI Act
items: The Impact of Mica Regulation Implementation on the Polish Crypto-Asset Market – Consequences, Regulatory Challenges and Prospects for Reform
items: Access to Public Information in the Form of Documents of the Supreme Audit Office Audit Proceedings
items: Theoretical Approach to Planning Authority (in Terms of the Municipality’s General Plan)
items: Access to the Disciplinary File of an Academic Teacher
items: The Notion of ‘Effective Remedy’ and ‘Effective Legal Remedy’ in EU Law Concerning the Gathering of Evidence in Criminal Proceedings
items: Comparative Law Aspects of Criminalisation of Acts Against Freedom of Religion in Polish and German Criminal Law
items: Exemption from the Remainder of the Penalty of Limitation of Liberty (Non-Custodial Penalty)
items: The Passage of Time Between the Commission of an Offence and Sentencing as a Ground for Punishment Mitigation
items: The Impact of MiCA Regulation Implementation on the Polish Crypto-Asset Market – Consequences, Regulatory Challenges and Prospects for Reform
items: Exemption From The Remainder Of The Penalty Of Limitation Of Liberty (Non-Custodial Penalty)
items: Czy istnieje podstawa prawna dla żądania zwrotu dóbr kultury wynikającego z nacjonalizmu kulturowego? Instrumenty wielostronne a umowy dwustronne
items: https://iusnovum.lazarski.pl/iusnovum/en/article/view/2152
items: Rozpatrywanie skarg powszechnych wnoszonych w związku z prowadzonym postępowaniem podatkowym
items: Posłowie a dostęp do informacji publicznej
items: Podmioty wykonujące administrację publiczną jako adresaci aktów lub czynności z zakresu administracji publicznej
items: Wpływ digitalizacji transportu lotniczego na prawa pasażerów – studium przypadku

Digital Processes in EU Company Regulations and Their Implications for Registry Practices
type: item
description: This paper examines the impact of European Union law on digitalisation, considering both its foundations and effects. Some of these aspects are addressed in Directive (EU) 2017/1132 of the European Parliament and of the Council on certain aspects of company law, as well as in the Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directives 2009/102/EC and (EU) 2017/1132 as regards further expanding and upgrading the use of digital tools and processes in company law. As a consequence of these legislative developments, several issues have since emerged. Examples include difficulties related to the online registration of companies introduced by Member States following the implementation of the Directive, and discrepancies between the information contained in national central business registers interconnected within the Business Registers Interconnection System (BRIS). In this context, the paper analyses the implications of the Court of Justice of the European Union’s judgment in the Manni case and explains why the ‘right to be forgotten’ may not apply in this area. Another issue arising from digitalisation concerns trust services, including the work of notaries and their relationship with Regulation (EU) No 910/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council on electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions in the internal market (the eIDAS Regulation), as well as Regulation (EU) 2024/1183 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 April 2024 amending Regulation (EU) No 910/2014 as regards establishing the European Digital Identity Framework. On this occasion, the paper also discusses why the eIDAS Regulation may not necessarily have a harmonising effect across the various legal systems within the EU. Finally, in light of the Fifth Anti-Money Laundering Directive of the European Union, the paper considers the concept of beneficial ownership, its notarial determination, and its relevance to the prevention of money lau…
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject:
  topic: keywords
  value: registration of companies; digitalisation; EU; EU law; CJEU; business; company law; company registers; BRIS; interconnection of business registers; Manni case; right to be forgotten; data protection; disclosure; notary; eIDAS; beneficial owner
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Tomasz Braun
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-17
publication date: 2025-12-17
starting page: 175
ending page: 189

Regulation of Airport Charges in EU Law, and in Poland and Germany: Limits of Airport Managing Bodies’ Autonomy and the Principle of Transparency and Non-Discrimination
type: item
description: This article analyses the regulation of airport charges under European Union law and within the national legal systems of Poland and Germany, with particular focus on the relationship between the autonomy of airport managing bodies and their obligation to observe the principles of transparency and non-discrimination. The authors discuss the legal framework established by Directive 2009/12/EC and examine its implementation in two distinct national contexts. The analysis demonstrates that, although airport managing bodies formally possess the right to determine the level and structure of charges, their discretion is constrained by both EU legislation and national oversight mechanisms.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: airport charges, non-discrimination, transparency, EU law, EU air transport
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Agnieszka Fortońska
creator: Matylda Berus
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-17
publication date: 2025-12-17
starting page: 156
ending page: 174

The Legal Aspects of the Use of the Electronic Fiscal and Customs Services Platform by Entrepreneurs Engaged in the International Trade of Goods
type: item
description: Entrepreneurs engaged in international trade are required to use the Electronic Fiscal and Customs Services Platform for the purpose of communicating with the National Tax Administration on matters relating to economic and tax policy. This modern technological tool plays an important role in the day-to-day operations of businesses and in the settlement of customs and other border taxes levied on economic operators engaged in the cross-border trade of goods within the European Union customs territory. The Electronic Fiscal and Customs Services Platform is an institution established under Polish law, aimed at implementing systemic, comprehensive solutions related to EU customs law. The objective of this article is to demonstrate that EU standards have been sufficiently detailed by the provisions of the Customs Law Act to ensure the functional implementation of this platform by Polish entrepreneurs. Without taking into account the specific circumstances of national legislation, electronic data-processing systems would be unable to function effectively within the context of the Polish economic framework.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: PUESC, custom, trade of goods, entrepreneur
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Andrzej Gorgol
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-17
publication date: 2025-12-17
starting page: 141
ending page: 155

Obligations of Importers, Distributors and Deployers of High-Risk AI Systems under the AI Act
type: item
description: The Artificial Intelligence (AI) Act distinguishes between the different actors involved in the supply chain of high-risk AI systems. The purpose of this paper is to outline and compare the obligations of importers, distributors and deployers, and to analyse the circumstances in which these obligations may be extended and aligned with those of providers of high-risk AI systems. The obligations of importers and distributors are primarily of a verification nature. In general, the obligations of distributors are more limited than those of importers, who bear the burden of primary verification of compliance by providers. In contrast, the obligations of deployers are generally not subordinate to those of providers but constitute an independent responsibility arising from the need to address the risks posed during the deployment phase of high-risk AI systems. A specific situation arises where interference with AI systems results in the imposition of obligations on a non-deployer that are equivalent to those imposed on providers of high-risk AI systems. This is because AI-based systems are, among other things, susceptible to changes in their purpose in ways that are independent of their design and the intentions of their providers. Proper identification and understanding of the responsibilities of the various actors in the supply chain are key to minimising the risks associated with the use of high-risk AI systems across the European Union and to avoiding the imposition of financial sanctions.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: AI Act; artificial intelligence; importers; distributors; deployers
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Karolina Kiejnich-Kruk
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-17
publication date: 2025-12-17
starting page: 121
ending page: 140

The Impact of Mica Regulation Implementation on the Polish Crypto-Asset Market – Consequences, Regulatory Challenges and Prospects for Reform
type: item
description: The aim of this article is to provide a critical assessment of the compliance of the Polish draft act implementing the MiCA Regulation with the objectives and the letter of the Regulation, and to verify the hypothesis that certain provisions constitute instances of gold-plating, increasing compliance costs without delivering proportionate benefits, while simultaneously leaving significant regulatory gaps unaddressed. The study applies a comparative legal analysis (Poland vs. selected EU Member States), a functional analysis (substance over form), and a regulatory impact assessment. Findings. 1. Poland effectively shortened the transitional period for CASPs to six months; after this date, MiCA authorisation or passporting (Article 65) is required. The claim of an ‘automatic 18-month’ period for Poland is incorrect. 2. The draft introduces regulations exceeding the scope of MiCA (including a public domain register and preventive account freezes), which require a rigorous proportionality test and consistency with the DSA. 3. The fee model of up to 0.4% of revenues is not extreme by EU standards but may significantly burden entities with high volumes and low margins. 4. Identified gaps include: the absence of ‘soft law’ instruments and clear criteria for DeFi and NFTs; in the area of stablecoins, prudential and infrastructural issues and overlaps between the MiCA, PSD2, and EMD regimes remain key barriers. The research hypothesis was largely confirmed: the Polish implementation is restrictive and, in parts, overly detailed, increasing both costs and uncertainty while failing to adequately address technologically sensitive areas (DeFi, NFTs, PLN-EMTs). It is therefore advisable to calibrate above-minimum instruments and close the identified gaps through soft-law measures and operational solutions. The second part of the conclusion presents systemic and operational recommendations.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: MiCA; crypto-assets; CASP; transitional period; passporting; gold-plating; KNF; DeFi; NFT; e- money token (EMT); AML / PSD2 / EMD, economy and finance
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Krzysztof Piech
creator: Sylwia Pangsy-Kania
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-17
publication date: 2025-12-17
starting page: 98
ending page: 120

Access to Public Information in the Form of Documents of the Supreme Audit Office Audit Proceedings
type: item
description: Access to public information, regulated in Article 61 of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland and the Act of 6 September 2001, is an element of public scrutiny of public authorities that enables the public to supervise public entities on a regular basis. The Supreme Audit Office (NIK), as the chief organ of state audit, is obliged to provide public information. The application of the Act on Access to Public Information to NIK’s audit results raises doubts, particularly in the context of other acts specifying different rules of access to information. Article 10 of the Act on the Supreme Audit Office establishes the obligation of the President of NIK to disclose certain documents; however, this does not preclude the application of the Act on Access to Public Information to other documents after the conclusion of audit proceedings. Audit programmes and subject matters are protected by audit confidentiality, but they may be disclosed once the audit has been completed, provided they are not deemed internal documents. These documents are crucial for assessing the integrity of NIK’s activities. Although audit proceeding files may not be considered public information as a whole, individual documents contained within the files constitute public information.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: Supreme Audit Office, Supreme Chamber of Control, public information, internal document, audit files
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Przemysław Szustakiewicz
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-17
publication date: 2025-12-17
starting page: 90
ending page: 97

Theoretical Approach to Planning Authority (in Terms of the Municipality’s General Plan)
type: item
description: In normative terms, spatial planning constitutes an authoritative means of shaping space. By exercising its planning authority, a municipality influences how property rights are exercised and, in extreme cases, may lead to their deprivation. The law must set limits on this authority by establishing instruments that guarantee adequate protection of property rights. The municipality’s general plan is one such legal instrument, fulfilling the constitutional condition for the admissibility of interference with real estate ownership, which may be based on a statute. It must not only specify the manner in which restrictions are to be introduced, but also provide a source of values that justify such restrictions. The municipality’s general plan meets these conditions. Thus, it becomes not only an important instrument of planning policy but also a crucial mechanism for protecting the property rights of real estate covered by the planning process.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: planning authority, municipality, general plan, property protection
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Zbigniew Czarnik
creator: Robert Sawuła
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-17
publication date: 2025-12-17
starting page: 78
ending page: 89

Access to the Disciplinary File of an Academic Teacher
type: item
description: The article is of a scientific and research-based nature. It analyses the transparency of disciplinary proceedings against academic teachers, which are conducted under the Act on Higher Education and Science. The article examines issues of transparency in light of the provisions of that Act, the Code of Criminal Procedure, and the Act on Access to Public Information. The research objective was clear: to determine whether persons not involved in disciplinary proceedings (namely the accused, their defence counsel, or the disciplinary advocate) may request access to the records of such proceedings (in whole or in part), or seek information from them other than official documents, under the Act on Access to Public Information. The analysis covered the regulations concerning the parties to disciplinary proceedings contained in the Higher Education and Science Act, the 2022 Implementing Regulation governing disciplinary procedures, and the Code provisions applicable to disciplinary matters. The rules concerning access to public information were also analysed, both in normative terms and in light of administrative court rulings. The research employed the dogmatic method, and its findings are original and significant for both legal scholarship and practice. The study has conclusively demonstrated that information from disciplinary proceedings involving academic teachers, as well as the files of such proceedings, although considered public information, are not subject to disclosure to persons requesting access under the Act on Access to Public Information. This is because a special regulation – namely the appropriate application, under Article 305 of the Higher Education and Science Act, of Article 156 § 1 of that Code – excludes such applicants, until the conclusion of the disciplinary proceedings, from the group of persons who, under the current legal framework, have access to disciplinary files.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: disciplinary proceedings of academic teachers, disciplinary files, access to files, public information
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Hanna Paluszkiewicz
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-17
publication date: 2025-12-17
starting page: 65
ending page: 77

The Notion of ‘Effective Remedy’ and ‘Effective Legal Remedy’ in EU Law Concerning the Gathering of Evidence in Criminal Proceedings
type: item
description: The article analyses the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union concerning ‘effective legal remedies’ under Article 14 of the Directive on the European Investigation Order (EIO) and ‘effective remedies’ provided for in EU directives regulating the rights of defendants in criminal proceedings. An analysis of this case law leads to the conclusion that the CJEU has established a more specific and higher standard of protection through effective remedies in the first of the aforementioned areas when interpreting Article 14 of the EIO Directive. By contrast, the case law on ‘effective remedies’ provided for in directives regulating the rights of defendants is based on the general assumption that EU law does not govern the admissibility of evidence, which means that it may sometimes be regarded as inconsistent with the standard established in this area by the European Court of Human Rights. The article also argues that the right to an effective remedy does not imply an obligation to create a separate legal measure in the form of a ‘complaint’ or ‘appeal’ within the national legal system.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: Court of Justice, EU directives, admissibility of evidence in criminal proceedings, effective remedy, effective redress
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Małgorzata Wąsek-Wiaderek
creator: Sławomir Steinborn
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-17
publication date: 2025-12-17
starting page: 47
ending page: 64

Comparative Law Aspects of Criminalisation of Acts Against Freedom of Religion in Polish and German Criminal Law
type: item
description: The criminal law protection of freedom of belief, understood here also as freedom of religion or freedom of conscience, is not only safeguarded by acts of international law but is also enshrined in the constitutions of most European states. Consequently, national authorities are obliged to ensure the peaceful coexistence of different faiths and religions. This article aims to provide an overview of the provisions of the Polish and German Criminal Codes concerning religious freedom and to compare the scope of their protection in light of the basic laws of these countries.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: freedom, religion, belief, Polish criminal law, German criminal law
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Beata Bachurska
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-17
publication date: 2025-12-17
starting page: 32
ending page: 46

Exemption from the Remainder of the Penalty of Limitation of Liberty (Non-Custodial Penalty)
type: item
description: This article discusses the exemption from the remainder of the penalty of limitation of liberty (non-custodial penalty) under Article 83 of the Penal Code, a legal institution that plays a significant role in criminal policy. It is intended to encourage convicted persons to comply with the law not only during the execution of the penalty but also after exemption, once part of the penalty has been served. However, this objective may not always be achieved due to the absence of additional instruments for influencing the conduct of convicted persons following exemption. The definitive nature of exemption, which precludes any further action in the event of a violation of the legal order by the exempted person, has led to a de lege ferenda proposal to make this institution conditional. The article analyses the purpose and legal nature of exemption, the conditions for its application (serving part of the sentence, compliance with the legal order, fulfilment of obligations imposed on the convicted person, penal measures, compensatory measures, and forfeiture), the sentencing procedure, and the consequences of exemption leading to recognition of the sentence as served.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: legal nature, penalty of limitation of liberty, legal order, penalty amount, probation measure, exemption
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Blanka J. Stefańska
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-17
publication date: 2025-12-17
starting page: 16
ending page: 31

The Passage of Time Between the Commission of an Offence and Sentencing as a Ground for Punishment Mitigation
type: item
description: This paper addresses the issue of rational sentencing in criminal proceedings, focusing specifically on the significance of the passage of substantial time between the commission of an offence and the imposition of a sentence as a potential ground for extraordinary mitigation of punishment. The aim is to resolve the question of whether a significant lapse of time between the commission of an offence and sentencing may serve as a mitigating factor in the punishment imposed by the court for that offence, or, more specifically, whether it may justify extraordinary mitigation of the statutory penalty or constitute a circumstance warranting leniency within the ordinary sentencing framework. The research hypothesis assumes that a lengthy interval between the offence and adjudication may exert a mitigating influence on the sentence imposed, both in cases where the court applies a sentence within the ordinary sentencing framework and where it resorts to extraordinary mitigation, although the time lapse does not constitute an autonomous basis for such mitigation. The study employs the dogmatic method, understood as an analysis of legal norms, with reference to relevant judicial decisions and the views of legal academics and commentators.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: judicial sentencing, extraordinary mitigation of punishment, mitigating circumstances, time in criminal law
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Joanna Długosz-Jóźwiak
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-17
publication date: 2025-12-17
starting page: 1
ending page: 15

Digital Processes in EU Company Regulations and Their Implications for Registry Practices
type: item
description: This paper examines the impact of European Union law on digitalisation, considering both its foundations and effects. Some of these aspects are addressed in Directive (EU) 2017/1132 of the European Parliament and of the Council on certain aspects of company law, as well as in the Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directives 2009/102/EC and (EU) 2017/1132 as regards further expanding and upgrading the use of digital tools and processes in company law. As a consequence of these legislative developments, several issues have since emerged. Examples include difficulties related to the online registration of companies introduced by Member States following the implementation of the Directive, and discrepancies between the information contained in national central business registers interconnected within the Business Registers Interconnection System (BRIS). In this context, the paper analyses the implications of the Court of Justice of the European Union’s judgment in the Manni case and explains why the ‘right to be forgotten’ may not apply in this area. Another issue arising from digitalisation concerns trust services, including the work of notaries and their relationship with Regulation (EU) No 910/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council on electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions in the internal market (the eIDAS Regulation), as well as Regulation (EU) 2024/1183 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 April 2024 amending Regulation (EU) No 910/2014 as regards establishing the European Digital Identity Framework. On this occasion, the paper also discusses why the eIDAS Regulation may not necessarily have a harmonising effect across the various legal systems within the EU. Finally, in light of the Fifth Anti-Money Laundering Directive of the European Union, the paper considers the concept of beneficial ownership, its notarial determination, and its relevance to the prevention of money lau…
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject:
  topic: keywords
  value: registration of companies, digitalisation, EU, EU law, CJEU, business, company law, company registers, BRIS, interconnection of business registers, Manni case, right to be forgotten, data protection, disclosure, notary, eIDAS, beneficial owner
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Tomasz Braun
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-08
publication date: 2025-12-08
starting page: 185
ending page: 201

Regulation of Airport Charges in EU Law, and in Poland and Germany: Limits of Airport Managing Bodies’ Autonomy and the Principle of Transparency and Non-Discrimination
type: item
description: This article analyses the regulation of airport charges under European Union law and within the national legal systems of Poland and Germany, with particular focus on the relationship between the autonomy of airport managing bodies and their obligation to observe the principles of transparency and non-discrimination. The authors discuss the legal framework established by Directive 2009/12/EC and examine its implementation in two distinct national contexts. The analysis demonstrates that, although airport managing bodies formally possess the right to determine the level and structure of charges, their discretion is constrained by both EU legislation and national oversight mechanisms.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: airport charges, non-discrimination, transparency, EU law, EU air transport
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Agnieszka Fortońska
creator: Matylda Berus
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-08
publication date: 2025-12-08
starting page: 165
ending page: 184

The Legal Aspects of the Use of the Electronic Fiscal and Customs Services Platform by Entrepreneurs Engaged in the International Trade of Goods
type: item
description: Entrepreneurs engaged in international trade are required to use the Electronic Fiscal and Customs Services Platform for the purpose of communicating with the National Tax Administration on matters relating to economic and tax policy. This modern technological tool plays an important role in the day-to-day operations of businesses and in the settlement of customs and other border taxes levied on economic operators engaged in the cross-border trade of goods within the European Union customs territory. The Electronic Fiscal and Customs Services Platform is an institution established under Polish law, aimed at implementing systemic, comprehensive solutions related to EU customs law. The objective of this article is to demonstrate that EU standards have been sufficiently detailed by the provisions of the Customs Law Act to ensure the functional implementation of this platform by Polish entrepreneurs. Without taking into account the specific circumstances of national legislation, electronic data-processing systems would be unable to function effectively within the context of the Polish economic framework.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: PUESC, custom, trade of goods, entrepreneur
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Andrzej Gorgol
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-08
publication date: 2025-12-08
starting page: 150
ending page: 164

Obligations of Importers, Distributors and Deployers of High-Risk AI Systems under the AI Act
type: item
description: The Artificial Intelligence (AI) Act distinguishes between the different actors involved in the supply chain of high-risk AI systems. The purpose of this paper is to outline and compare the obligations of importers, distributors and deployers, and to analyse the circumstances in which these obligations may be extended and aligned with those of providers of high-risk AI systems. The obligations of importers and distributors are primarily of a verification nature. In general, the obligations of distributors are more limited than those of importers, who bear the burden of primary verification of compliance by providers. In contrast, the obligations of deployers are generally not subordinate to those of providers but constitute an independent responsibility arising from the need to address the risks posed during the deployment phase of high-risk AI systems. A specific situation arises where interference with AI systems results in the imposition of obligations on a non-deployer that are equivalent to those imposed on providers of high-risk AI systems. This is because AI-based systems are, among other things, susceptible to changes in their purpose in ways that are independent of their design and the intentions of their providers. Proper identification and understanding of the responsibilities of the various actors in the supply chain are key to minimising the risks associated with the use of high-risk AI systems across the European Union and to avoiding the imposition of financial sanctions.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: AI Act; artificial intelligence; importers; distributors; deployers
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Karolina Kiejnich-Kruk
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-08
publication date: 2025-12-08
starting page: 129
ending page: 149

The Impact of MiCA Regulation Implementation on the Polish Crypto-Asset Market – Consequences, Regulatory Challenges and Prospects for Reform
type: item
description: The aim of this article is to provide a critical assessment of the compliance of the Polish draft act implementing the MiCA Regulation with the objectives and the letter of the Regulation, and to verify the hypothesis that certain provisions constitute instances of gold-plating, increasing compliance costs without delivering proportionate benefits, while simultaneously leaving significant regulatory gaps unaddressed. The study applies a comparative legal analysis (Poland vs. selected EU Member States), a functional analysis (substance over form), and a regulatory impact assessment. Findings. (1) Poland effectively shortened the transitional period for CASPs to six months; after this date, MiCA authorisation or passporting (Article 65) is required. The claim of an ‘automatic 18-month’ period for Poland is incorrect. (2) The draft introduces regulations exceeding the scope of MiCA (including a public domain register and preventive account freezes), which require a igorous proportionality test and consistency with the DSA. (3) The fee model of up to 0.4% of revenues is not extreme by EU standards but may significantly burden entities with high volumes and low margins. (4) Identified gaps include: the absence of ‘soft law’ instruments and clear criteria for DeFi and NFTs; in the area of stablecoins, prudential and infrastructural issues and overlaps between the MiCA, PSD2, and EMD regimes remain key barriers. The research hypothesis was largely confirmed: the Polish implementation is restrictive and, in parts, overly detailed, increasing both costs and uncertainty while failing to adequately address technologically sensitive areas (DeFi, NFTs, PLN-EMTs). It is therefore advisable to calibrate above-minimum instruments and close the identified gaps through soft-law measures and operational solutions. Part II of the conclusion presents systemic and operational recommendations.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: MiCA; crypto-assets; CASP; transitional period; passporting; gold-plating; KNF; DeFi; NFT; e-money token; EMT; AML / PSD2 / EMD; economy and finance
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Krzysztof Piech
creator: Sylwia Pangsy-Kania
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-08
publication date: 2025-12-08
starting page: 102
ending page: 128

Access to Public Information in the Form of Documents of the Supreme Audit Office Audit Proceedings
type: item
description: Access to public information, regulated in Article 61 of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland and the Act of 6 September 2001, is an element of public scrutiny of public authorities that enables the public to supervise public entities on a regular basis. The Supreme Audit Office [NIK], as the chief organ of state audit, is obliged to provide public information. The application of the Act on Access to Public Information to NIK’s audit results raises doubts, particularly in the context of other acts specifying different rules of access to information. Article 10 of the Act on the Supreme Audit Office establishes the obligation of the President of NIK to disclose certain documents; however, this does not preclude the application of the Act on Access to Public Information to other documents after the conclusion of audit proceedings. Audit programmes and subject matters are protected by audit confidentiality, but they may be disclosed once the audit has been completed, provided they are not deemed internal documents. These documents are crucial for assessing the integrity of NIK’s activities. Although audit proceeding files may not be considered public information as a whole, individual documents contained within the files constitute public information.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: Supreme Audit Office, Supreme Chamber of Control, public information, internal document, audit files
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Przemysław Szustakiewicz
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-08
publication date: 2025-12-08
starting page: 94
ending page: 101

Theoretical Approach to Planning Authority (in Terms of the Municipality’s General Plan)
type: item
description: In normative terms, spatial planning constitutes an authoritative means of shaping space. By exercising its planning authority, a municipality influences how property rights are exercised and, in extreme cases, may lead to their deprivation. The law must set limits on this authority by establishing instruments that guarantee adequate protection of property rights. The municipality’s general plan is one such legal instrument, fulfilling the constitutional condition for the admissibility of interference with real estate ownership, which may be based on a statute. It must not only specify the manner in which restrictions are to be introduced, but also provide a source of values that justify such restrictions. The municipality’s general plan meets these conditions. Thus, it becomes not only an important instrument of planning policy but also a crucial mechanism for protecting the property rights of real estate covered by the planning process.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: planning authority, municipality, general plan, property protection
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Zbigniew Czarnik
creator: Robert Sawuła
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-08
publication date: 2025-12-08
starting page: 81
ending page: 93

Access to the Disciplinary File of an Academic Teacher
type: item
description: The article is of a scientific and research-based nature. It analyses the transparency of disciplinary proceedings against academic teachers, which are conducted under the Act on Higher Education and Science. The article examines issues of transparency in light of the provisions of that Act, the Code of Criminal Procedure, and the Act on Access to Public Information. The research objective was clear: to determine whether persons not involved in disciplinary proceedings (namely the accused, their defence counsel, or the disciplinary advocate) may request access to the records of such proceedings (in whole or in part), or seek information from them other than official documents, under the Act on Access to Public Information. The analysis covered the regulations concerning the parties to disciplinary proceedings contained in the Higher Education and Science Act, the 2022 Implementing Regulation governing disciplinary procedures, and the CCP provisions applicable to disciplinary matters. The rules concerning access to public information were also analysed, both in normative terms and in light of administrative court rulings. The research employed the dogmatic method, and its findings are original and significant for both legal scholarship and practice. The study has conclusively demonstrated that information from disciplinary proceedings involving academic teachers, as well as the files of such proceedings, although considered public information, are not subject to disclosure to persons requesting access under the Act on Access to Public Information. This is because a special regulation – namely the appropriate application, under Article 305 of the Higher Education and Science Act, of Article 156(1) of that Code – excludes such applicants, until the conclusion of the disciplinary proceedings, from the group of persons who, under the current legal framework, have access to disciplinary files.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: disciplinary proceedings of academic teachers, disciplinary files, access to files, public information
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Hanna Paluszkiewicz
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-08
publication date: 2025-12-08
starting page: 67
ending page: 80

The Notion of ‘Effective Remedy’ and ‘Effective Legal Remedy’ in EU Law Concerning the Gathering of Evidence in Criminal Proceedings
type: item
description: The article analyses the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union concerning ‘effective legal remedies’ under Article 14 of the Directive on the European Investigation Order (EIO) and ‘effective remedies’ provided for in EU directives regulating the rights of defendants in criminal proceedings. An analysis of this case law leads to the conclusion that the CJEU has established a more specific and higher standard of protection through effective remedies in the first of the aforementioned areas when interpreting Article 14 of the EIO Directive. By contrast, the case law on ‘effective remedies’ provided for in directives regulating the rights of defendants is based on the general assumption that EU law does not govern the admissibility of evidence, which means that it may sometimes be regarded as inconsistent with the standard established in this area by the European Court of Human Rights. The article also argues that the right to an effective remedy does not imply an obligation to create a separate legal measure in the form of a ‘complaint’ or ‘appeal’ within the national legal system.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: Court of Justice, EU directives, admissibility of evidence in criminal proceedings, effective remedy, effective redress
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Małgorzata Wąsek-Wiaderek
creator: Sławomir Steinborn
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-08
publication date: 2025-12-08
starting page: 48
ending page: 66

Comparative Law Aspects of Criminalisation of Acts Against Freedom of Religion in Polish and German Criminal Law
type: item
description: The criminal law protection of freedom of belief, understood here also as freedom of religion or freedom of conscience, is not only safeguarded by acts of international law but is also enshrined in the constitutions of most European states. Consequently, national authorities are obliged to ensure the peaceful coexistence of different faiths and religions. This article aims to provide an overview of the provisions of the Polish and German Criminal Codes concerning religious freedom and to compare the scope of their protection in light of the basic laws of these countries.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: freedom, religion, belief, Polish criminal law, German criminal law
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Beata Bachurska
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-08
publication date: 2025-12-08
starting page: 32
ending page: 47

Exemption From The Remainder Of The Penalty Of Limitation Of Liberty (Non-Custodial Penalty)
type: item
description: This article discusses the exemption from the remainder of the penalty of limitation of liberty (non-custodial penalty) under Article 83 of the Penal Code, a legal institution that plays a significant role in criminal policy. It is intended to encourage convicted persons to comply with the law not only during the execution of the penalty but also after exemption, once part of the penalty has been served. However, this objective may not always be achieved due to the absence of additional instruments for influencing the conduct of convicted persons following exemption. The definitive nature of exemption, which precludes any further action in the event of a violation of the legal order by the exempted person, has led to a de lege ferenda proposal to make this institution conditional. The article analyses the purpose and legal nature of exemption, the conditions for its application (serving part of the sentence, compliance with the legal order, fulfilment of obligations imposed on the convicted person, penal measures, compensatory measures, and forfeiture), the sentencing procedure, and the consequences of exemption leading to recognition of the sentence as served.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: legal nature, penalty of limitation of liberty, legal order, penalty amount, probation measure, exemption
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Blanka J. Stefańska
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-08
publication date: 2025-12-08
starting page: 16
ending page: 31

The Passage of Time Between the Commission of an Offence and Sentencing as a Ground for Punishment Mitigation
type: item
description: This paper addresses the issue of rational sentencing in criminal proceedings, focusing specifically on the significance of the passage of substantial time between the commission of an offence and the imposition of a sentence as a potential ground for extraordinary mitigation of punishment. The aim is to resolve the question of whether a significant lapse of time between the commission of an offence and sentencing may serve as a mitigating factor in the punishment imposed by the court for that offence, or, more specifically, whether it may justify extraordinary mitigation of the statutory penalty or constitute a circumstance warranting leniency within the ordinary sentencing framework. The research hypothesis assumes that a lengthy interval between the offence and adjudication may exert a mitigating influence on the sentence imposed, both in cases where the court applies a sentence within the ordinary sentencing framework and where it resorts to extraordinary mitigation, although the time lapse does not constitute an autonomous basis for such mitigation. The study employs the dogmatic method, understood as an analysis of legal norms, with reference to relevant judicial decisions and the views of legal academics and commentators.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: judicial sentencing, extraordinary mitigation of punishment, mitigating circumstances, time in criminal law
  topic: keywords
subject: legal sciences
  topic: disciplines
creator: Joanna Długosz-Jóźwiak
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-12-08
publication date: 2025-12-08
starting page: 1
ending page: 15

Czy istnieje podstawa prawna dla żądania zwrotu dóbr kultury wynikającego z nacjonalizmu kulturowego? Instrumenty wielostronne a umowy dwustronne
type: item
description: W artykule prześledzono pojawiające się w prawie międzynarodowym normy w zakresie prawnego obowiązku zwrotu mienia zagrabionego w okresie kolonialnym. Żądania zwrotu są głównymi roszczeniami państw zdekolonizowanych, które poruszają tę kwestię na arenie międzynarodowej. Obowiązek ten jest stopniowo uznawany i rozwijany w szeregu instrumentów wielostronnych przyjętych przez Organizację Narodów Zjednoczonych do spraw Edukacji, Nauki i Kultury (UNESCO), Międzynarodowy Instytut Unifikacji Prawa Prywatnego (UNIDROIT), Organizację Narodów Zjednoczonych (ONZ) oraz państwa wraz z podmiotami niepaństwowymi, wprowadzającymi przepisy kryminalizujące obrót skradzionymi dobrami kultury i zapewniające ich zwrot w ramach dostępnego zadośćuczynienia. Równolegle z rozwojem tego obowiązku na mocy prawa międzynarodowego, społeczność międzynarodowa zaczęła bardziej angażować się w dwustronne umowy dotyczące zwrotu dóbr kultury. W lipcu 2024 r. Indie i USA zawarły „Porozumienie w sprawie dóbr kultury”. Wśród licznych inicjatyw i postępu w zakresie wypełnienia luk prawnych, Rada Praw Człowieka przyjęła dwie rezolucje, w latach 2018 i 2025, w których – uznając, że prawa kulturalne mają wymiar praw człowieka – wzmocniono wielostronne podejście do zacieśnionej współpracy na rzecz przywracania dóbr kultury skradzionych, zrabowanych lub będących przedmiotem handlu do krajów ich pochodzenia.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: dobra kultury, UNESCO, restytucja, umowy dwustronne, okupacja kolonialna, UNIDROIT
  topic: keywords
subject: nauki prawne
  topic: disciplines
creator: Vinai Kumar Singh
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Uczelnia Łazarskiego w Warszawie, Polska https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-10-15
publication date: 2025-10-15
starting page: 166
ending page: 195

https://iusnovum.lazarski.pl/iusnovum/en/article/view/2152
type: item
title: Pojęcia: „normalne wynagrodzenie” oraz „wynagrodzenie pracownika wynikające z jego osobistego zaszeregowania określonego stawką godzinową lub miesięczną” w rozumieniu art. 151(1) § 1 i 3 k.p. w świetle orzecznictwa Sądu Najwyższego oraz poglądów doktryny
description: W artykule poddano analizie zasady ustalania wynagrodzenia za pracę w godzinach nadliczbowych w kontekście przepisów Kodeksu pracy oraz najnowszego orzecznictwa Sądu Najwyższego. Autorka analizuje dualną konstrukcję należności przysługujących pracownikowi – tzw. „normalnego wynagrodzenia”, oraz dodatku za nadgodziny – wskazując ich różne funkcje prawne i ekonomiczne. Szczególną uwagę poświęcono zagadnieniu, w którym składniki wynagrodzenia mogą być uwzględniane jako część „normalnego wynagrodzenia” w rozumieniu art. 151¹ § 1 k.p. Artykuł zawiera również postulaty de lege ferenda, dotyczące potrzeby ustawowego doprecyzowania tego pojęcia w celu zapewnienia przejrzystości i adekwatności systemu wynagrodzeń.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: praca w godzinach nadliczbowych, rekompensowanie pracy w godzinach nadliczbowych, wynagrodzenie za pracę w godzinach nadliczbowych, normalne wynagrodzenie, dodatek za godziny nadliczbowe
  topic: keywords
subject: nauki prawne
  topic: disciplines
creator: Magdalena Rycak
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Uczelnia Łazarskiego w Warszawie, Polska https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-10-15
publication date: 2025-10-15
starting page: 152
ending page: 165

Rozpatrywanie skarg powszechnych wnoszonych w związku z prowadzonym postępowaniem podatkowym
type: item
description: Artykuł dotyczy zagadnienia rozpatrywania skarg powszechnych wnoszonych w różnych fazach postępowania podatkowego i z tym postępowaniem ściśle związanych. Mając na względzie pierwszeństwo postępowania jurysdykcyjnego przed uproszczonym postępowaniem skargowym oraz zakaz dwutorowości postępowania, autor przedstawia różne możliwości traktowania skarg w postępowaniu podatkowym, w szczególności skargi wnoszonej przez stronę tego postępowania. Wykazuje, że skargi powszechne spełniające wymogi formalne dla tych środków powinny być rozpatrywane w postępowaniu podatkowym w myśl zasady pierwszeństwa postępowania podatkowego przed uproszczonym postępowaniem skargowym. Dowodzi również, że skargi powszechne mogą być rozpatrywane w podatkowym nawet wtedy, gdy nie spełniają wymogów formalnych pism załatwianych w postępowaniu podatkowym, ale jedynie w sytuacji, gdy braki te, zgodnie z procedurą podatkową, mogą zostać usunięte. Dotyczy to w szczególności przypadków braku podpisu w skardze, powołania identyfikatora podatkowego oraz niezałączenia korekty zeznania (deklaracji podatkowej). Autor dowodzi także, że informowanie skarżących będących osobami trzecimi o rozpatrywaniu skargi w postępowaniu podatkowym każdorazowo winno uwzględniać konieczność dochowania zarówno tajemnicy tego specyficznego postępowania, jak i tajemnicy skarbowej.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: skarga, postępowanie skargowe, postępowanie podatkowe, skarga w postępowaniu podatkowym
  topic: keywords
subject: nauki prawne
  topic: disciplines
creator: Wojciech M. Hrynicki
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Uczelnia Łazarskiego w Warszawie, Polska https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-10-15
publication date: 2025-10-15
starting page: 133
ending page: 151

Posłowie a dostęp do informacji publicznej
type: item
description: Przedmiotem artykułu są poselskie uprawnienia i obowiązki informacyjne. Analizie poddano orzeczenia sądów administracyjnych w sprawach dostępu do informacji publicznej, w których wnioskodawcą bądź adresatem żądania był poseł. Sądy administracyjne dopuszczają możliwość realizowania przez posłów prawa dostępu do informacji publicznej, ale bez powoływania się na wykonywany mandat. Równocześnie poseł nie jest kwalifikowany jako podmiot zobowiązany do udzielania informacji publicznej. W artykule przedstawiono dwie tezy. Po pierwsze, poseł może realizować prawo dostępu do informacji publicznej, ujawniając swój szczególny status. Po drugie, poseł jest podmiotem zobowiązanym do udostępniania informacji publicznej, gdyż wykonuje władzę publiczną i zadania publiczne, dysponuje majątkiem publicznym. Tezy uzasadnia wykładnia językowa i funkcjonalna przepisów konstytucyjnych, a także ustaw o dostępie do informacji publicznej i o wykonywaniu mandatu posła i senatora. W pracy wykorzystano metodę analizy dogmatyczno-prawnej i analizę orzecznictwa polskich sądów administracyjnych oraz przedstawiono uwagi de lege lata i wnioski de lege ferenda.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: informacja publiczna, poseł, wykonywanie mandatu, uprawnienia informacyjne, dostęp do informacji publicznej, podmioty zobowiązane, władze publiczne, zadania publiczne
  topic: keywords
subject: nauki prawne
  topic: disciplines
creator: Łukasz Nosarzewski
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Uczelnia Łazarskiego w Warszawie, Polska https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-10-15
publication date: 2025-10-15
starting page: 114
ending page: 132

Podmioty wykonujące administrację publiczną jako adresaci aktów lub czynności z zakresu administracji publicznej
type: item
description: Celem artykułu jest analiza aktów i czynności, o których mowa w art. 3 § 2 pkt 4 p.p.s.a. od strony podmiotowej – podmiotu, którego one dotyczą, będącego jednocześnie podmiotem wykonującym administrację publiczną. Tego rodzaju analiza jest interesująca heurystycznie z następujących powodów: po pierwsze, na obu biegunach sytuacji administracyjnoprawnej, której dotyczą akt lub czynność, znajdują się podmioty wykonujące administrację publiczną. Po wtóre, pojęcia: „uprawnienie” oraz „obowiązek”, użyte w przepisie art. 3 § 2 pkt 4 p.p.s.a., mają już ugruntowane znaczenie w doktrynie prawa administracyjnego. Powstaje więc pytanie: jak należy rozumieć ich desygnaty, interpretując przepis art. 3 § 2 pkt 4 p.p.s.a.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: uprawnienie administracyjne, obowiązek, czynność, akt
  topic: keywords
subject: nauki prawne
  topic: disciplines
creator: Mirosław Wincenciak
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Uczelnia Łazarskiego w Warszawie, Polska https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-10-15
publication date: 2025-10-15
starting page: 99
ending page: 113

Wpływ digitalizacji transportu lotniczego na prawa pasażerów – studium przypadku
type: item
description: Europejska linia lotnicza eliminuje całkowicie papierowe karty pokładowe, akceptując wyłącznie karty mobilne, wymagające użycia aplikacji. Oznacza to konieczność stosowania przez pasażerów jedynie elektronicznych kart, bez możliwości ich wydruku. Czy jednak taki postęp cyfrowy może być dokonywany wbrew woli pasażerów? Z jednej strony, digitalizacja ułatwia proces odprawy i obniża koszty operacyjne linii lotniczej. Jednak z drugiej – wciąż wielu pasażerów korzysta z papierowych kart pokładowych, co oznacza, że dla niektórych z nich zmiana ta może być sporym wyzwaniem. Czy zatem osiągnięcie właściwej równowagi między digitalizacją a prawami pasażerów linii lotniczych jest w ogóle możliwe? Czy osiągnięcie całkowitej digitalizacji systemu biletowego kosztem wolności wyboru pasażerów ma uzasadnienie prawne? Celem analizy zawartej w niniejszym artykule jest ocena legalności takiej polityki pod kątem jej zgodności z przepisami prawa dotyczącymi ochrony konsumentów, przepisami Rozporządzenia Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady (UE) 2016/679 z dnia 27 kwietnia 2016 r. w sprawie ochrony osób fizycznych w związku z przetwarzaniem danych osobowych i w sprawie swobodnego przepływu takich danych (RODO), a także z przepisami prawa lotniczego.
subject: Original article
  topic: section
subject: digitalizacja transportu lotniczego, prawa pasażerów lotniczych, ochrona danych osobowych, cyberbezpieczeństwo
  topic: keywords
subject: nauki prawne
  topic: disciplines
creator: Anna Konert
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Uczelnia Łazarskiego w Warszawie, Polska https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
date: 2025-10-15
publication date: 2025-10-15
starting page: 81
ending page: 98